International Affairs No. 4, 2024 – Table of Contents

I HAVE been familiar with the word “fascism” since childhood. The [Second World] War left a deep impression on my family – grandfathers who fought at the front, grandmothers who lived through the occupation; old uniforms and worn jackets with medals on them in the closet, carefully wrapped to protect them from dust, smelling of wormwood and lavender; ever-present strategic supplies of crackers, flour, grain, and oil, and the perpetual question: “Are you hungry?”

When war films started playing on TV, I would run to watch. The images of barking men in gray-green uniforms with Schmeissers and helmets, tanks, artillery fire, and explosions were striking. It was both frightening and fascinating, but incomprehensible. The older ones in our family did not like war films, preferring to distract themselves and do something else. They answered my numerous questions slowly and thoughtfully, carefully weighing their words. They rarely spoke about the war, and only reluctantly, trying to change the subject…Paste info from On Demand

NONE of us doubts that Victory on the battlefield will be won. Diplomats, like soldiers in today’s battles, must also selflessly prepare for this Victory. It will come, and it will be for all of us – as always!

Our field is international relations. It is significant that discussion about the future world order is gaining momentum. We regularly read works by experts describing various scenarios of the inevitable reconfiguration of the world order…

NUCLEAR doctrines are not dogma but a guide to action. Over time, they have undergone changes, shifts in emphasis, and adjustments. As President Vladimir Putin noted at the recent St. Petersburg International Economic Forum, nuclear doctrine is a “living document.” Today, Russia faces the most serious threat to its security since the Great Patriotic War. The situation demands action.

“The challenges multiplying as a result of unacceptable escalatory actions by the US and its NATO allies undoubtedly raise the question of how basic documents in the field of nuclear deterrence can be brought more in line with current needs,”¹ Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov said on the sidelines of a BRICS foreign ministers’ meeting…

UN SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION 1540 was unanimously approved on April 28, 2004. Russia was one of the initiators of this resolution, contributing significantly to finding a delicate balance of interests to address the issue of preventing weapons of mass destruction (WMD), their means of delivery, and related materials from falling into the hands of nonstate actors, including terrorists…

THE impetus for writing this article was my participation in a roundtable on UN Security Council reform that took place in New York in April 2024 at the initiative of the Uniting for Consensus group.

In my opinion, that event was not only interesting but also useful, as it allowed for the expression of both the traditional positions of member states on this topic and the ideas of academics. As we know, discussion on the expansion of membership and improvement of the working methods of the Security Council has been ongoing for almost 30 years. However, the members of the Organization have yet to reach a consensus on an acceptable formula for the proposed changes…

THE impetus for writing this article was my participation in a roundtable on UN Security Council reform that took place in New York in April 2024 at the initiative of the Uniting for Consensus group.

In my opinion, that event was not only interesting but also useful, as it allowed for the expression of both the traditional positions of member states on this topic and the ideas of academics. As we know, discussion on the expansion of membership and improvement of the working methods of the Security Council has been ongoing for almost 30 years. However, the members of the Organization have yet to reach a consensus on an acceptable formula for the proposed changes…

CURRENTLY, there are two approaches to defining the future of the Internet and the model of digital transformation. The first approach is based on the Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace [1], which states that the Internet should not have political borders. The second approach reflects real life and suggests the responsible use of the Internet, delineating boundaries and measures of responsibility [2]. The first approach is supported by the US and the collective West. The second is advocated by Russia, China, India, and several other countries. Meanwhile, most countries in the world have yet to give a definitive answer on what the future Internet should look like.

This article supports the claim that in today’s world, real state sovereignty cannot be achieved without ensuring digital sovereignty and an independent technological policy. It proposes a technical model for achieving digital sovereignty goals and provides examples of interactions with African countries to promote this position within the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)…

THE Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a prominent example of an integrative organization that, over its more than half-century history, has become the central entity in Southeast Asia (SEA) for key areas of regional development. A key feature that has enabled ASEAN to maintain cohesion among its members is its ability to adapt to dynamic global processes.

In this regard, a significant milestone for the Association was the decision to establish the ASEAN Community at the 27th ASEAN Summit in Kuala Lumpur on November 22, 2015. Researchers note that this event marked ASEAN’s transition to a higher level of integration. The establishment of the ASEAN communities, particularly the Political-Security Community, the Economic Community, and the Socio-Cultural Community, according to Russian researchers, contributes to “a more coordinated policy of all institutions aimed at maintaining peace and stability in the region” [7, p. 32]. Simultaneously, the program document ASEAN 2025: Forging Ahead Together was signed [11], forming ASEAN’s medium-term strategy…

THE modern world faces an increasing number of natural, biogenic, and anthropogenic challenges and threats. Addressing most of these challenges requires the mobilization of efforts from multiple states and, in some cases, the entire global community, necessitating constant dialogue to coordinate activities. Consequently, modern international relations are characterized by structural complexity, a diversity of ongoing processes, and varying degrees of involvement from a wide range of actors. As the system of international relations becomes more complex, the scope of issues that states must address in their foreign policy activities also expands. Moreover, since the second half of the 20th century, intergovernmental and nongovernmental international organizations have become an important part of international relations, significantly shaping the agenda and development trends. In addition to international organizations, civil society institutions are gaining increasing influence, also affecting the formation of the state’s foreign policy and the international agenda…

NATURAL disasters and armed conflicts have accompanied human existence throughout history, always leading to spikes in mortality and morbidity. However, in recent years, the scale and scope of these events have noticeably increased. Since the 1990s, such events annually affect around 217 million people, forcing them to live under conditions of extreme instability and humanitarian crises.¹ Despite this, in recent decades, global health management measures amid humanitarian crises caused by armed conflicts have not led to increased equity and quality in the provision of medical care and services in affected areas.

Armed conflicts have a profound impact on the architecture of health governance. Military actions often result in the destruction of health care infrastructure, including hospitals, clinics, and essential medical supply chains. Such widespread disruptions hinder the delivery of basic medical services, leading to increased morbidity and mortality. Large-scale population displacement is the most common consequence of armed conflicts, resulting in the creation of refugee camps and pressure on host communities. This situation exacerbates health issues, as overcrowding promotes the spread of infectious diseases, compounded by the concurrent collapse of health care systems. Conflicts restrict or complicate the provision of humanitarian aid, impeding the delivery of essential medical supplies, vaccines, and medical personnel to affected areas. The psychological consequences of armed conflict always…

IDENTITIES in the sociopolitical process in general, and in the structuring of geopolitical space in particular, have only recently been incorporated into Russian academic discourse. Therefore, the authors of the monograph Political Identity and the Politics of Identity [in Russian] provided a conceptual and categorical framework for this topic, indicating that changes in the overall structure of the identity markers of modern macro-societies affect both the configuration of communications and the stability of key institutional foundations of the contemporary world order.

Moreover, contemporary sociopolitical trends do not support the hypothesis that global “modernization … becomes a universal imperative … directed at every community in today’s world, implying the simultaneous universalization of identity models and the intensive expansion of the spectrum of identity components.”¹…

CONSIDERING the development prospects available to the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) through inclusion in integration projects, it should be noted that the EAEU can provide all sorts of paths and avenues for cooperation to all member states. Currently, there are differences in approaches to economic development among the countries, as well as varying perspectives on political issues among member states. However, it is significant that interaction within the EAEU on defense and counterterrorism guarantees the stability and security of all EAEU member states and contributes to the overall stability of the region.

Moreover, the EAEU enhances the political weight of its participants on the international stage, including for the protection of their regional interests. The attraction of foreign investments, increase in trade turnover, economic growth, development of infrastructure and transport-logistics connections, as well as the possibilities for the EAEU to integrate into global projects are all directly related to the effectiveness of the EAEU itself…

A KEY aspect of international rivalry with the People’s Republic of China for the US has always been, and remains to this day, the struggle for political influence in the Asia-Pacific region (APR) and for the dominant role among the powers located there. Washington is well aware that political rapprochement in the modern world largely stems from economic rapprochement, achieved primarily by “attaching” the national economies of other countries to itself through trade agreements, making further interaction with US rivals simply unprofitable for participating states…

IN THE early 21st century, Saudi Arabia, a major economic and geopolitical player on the international stage with extensive oil reserves and a unique strategic position, as well as home to Islam’s holiest sites, began developing a new foreign policy strategy in the Middle East. The kingdom followed a characteristically cautious policy aligned with the US on military-technical and energy cooperation. However, the new Saudi leadership has shown greater initiative in pursuing a regional policy independently. This shift is attributed to significant political changes within the kingdom and shifts in the balance of power on the international stage, particularly in the Middle East…

SINCE the mid-2010s, Germany’s sociopolitical discourse has highlighted numerous weaknesses in the development of the Bundeswehr. This is evident from leaks and reports from the Ministry of Defense,¹ as well as statements from several high-ranking officials. Amid the backdrop of Russia’s forced Special Military Operation (SMO), the German information space has been promoting the notion of the Bundeswehr’s technical incapacity to conduct large-scale military operations over an extended period.

Concurrently, official Berlin has announced ambitious plans not only for the development but also the utilization of the Bundeswehr. According to plans from the late 2010s, the number of divisions in the army is set to increase from three to six, with eight to 10 new brigades being formed in addition to the existing 7.5 brigades by the mid-2030s.² In June 2022, Chancellor Olaf Scholz declared the intention to transform the Bundeswehr into the largest conventional armed force among NATO’s European member states, making it the third largest overall within the alliance, following the US and Turkey.³…

AS RUSSIAN researchers rightly note, migration is a leading issue in the modern politics of the European Union.¹ That thesis is fully applicable to Germany, an EU pillar that is the leading receiver of political asylum applications from foreigners…

MONGOLIA possesses significant reserves of resources valuable for the production of high-tech products. From 2017 to 2020, the share of Mongolia’s mining and metallurgical sector in the total GDP of developing countries was 17.2%.¹ The mining industry accounts for 72% of industrial production, 87% of exports, 75% of foreign direct investment (FDI), and 25% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP)…

UPON assuming leadership of Egypt in 2014, President Abdel Fattah El-Sisi immediately sought to stabilize the situation in the country, restore national institutions, and launch the Egypt Vision 2030 sustainable development strategy. This strategy encompasses 12 key areas: education, innovation, scientific research, energy, culture, environmental issues, social support, efficient functioning of government institutions, economic development, health care, national security, and foreign policy.

Despite the economic challenges posed by global circumstances, several important projects are being implemented, the most significant of which is the rapid construction of the new Suez Canal, initiated in August 2014. This project was funded by public investments through the issuance of bonds with a 12% annual return. The new Suez Canal is a crucial step in the successful development of the axis project in the Suez Canal area and the transformation of Egypt into a global trade and logistics hub…

APRIL 28, 2024, marks the 25th anniversary of the unique, yet now almost forgotten FOCUS international humanitarian relief operation. In March 1999, it became a one-of-a-kind mechanism that united the capabilities of four allied states – Austria, Greece, Russia, and Switzerland – in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).

Today, it is appropriate, in our opinion, to discuss this operation not so much in terms of the quantity of humanitarian aid delivered, but from a historical and political perspective – as an example of collective efforts to mitigate military aggression. In this article, we will use the term “initiative,” as initially proposed by the Swiss side, since this term more accurately reflects its essence…

THE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) was the first large-scale OSCE operation focused on peacekeeping and conflict resolution. It was a failure, revealing all the political and organizational flaws and distortions that had developed within the OSCE over its existence and highlighting just how far the organization had strayed from its ideals of being an integrator of pan-European security and cooperation processes.

Shedding light on the KVM’s activities, as a significant aspect of the events in Kosovo in late 1998 and early 1999, is instructive and adds important details to the overall picture of the Kosovo crisis, shamelessly used by NATO for aggression against Yugoslavia.¹…

TIME is relentless and ruthless. Over 50 years have passed since the signing of the Paris Accords on Vietnam, marking the end of one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts of the second half of the 20th century. As the general theory of relativity teaches, time moves at different speeds in different points of space. This seems to apply not only to different galaxies but also to human life. For history, half a century is a moment. For archival work, it is a significant period after which many (certainly not all) documents are declassified. For an individual, it is a colossal span, once equivalent to a whole lifetime but generally within the bounds of personal experience…

WITH the onset of World War II, the development of the “idea of Europe,” which has deep historical roots and is based on the notion of establishing “perpetual peace” on the European continent through political and other forms of unification, gained new momentum. In the early 1940s, thoughts about the necessity of creating various regional federations and international institutions in this most “volatile” part of the globe began to be voiced not only by many prominent intellectuals of the time in the West but also by several major state figures from the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. Unlike the Europeanism of the Versailles era, which was distinctly anti-Soviet, most European projects during World War II viewed the USSR – an unquestioned leader in the fight against fascist aggression in the Old World – as an equal partner of other Europeans in a future “United States of Europe” and acknowledged it as a leading actor in international politics alongside the other powers of the so-called “Big Three”: the US and Great Britain…

IN OCTOBER 2024, the 80th anniversary of the liberation of Northern Norway by Soviet troops from Nazi occupiers will be commemorated. During this operation, over 2,000 Red Army soldiers sacrificed their lives. During the celebration of the 75th anniversary of the liberation of Eastern Finnmark, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov remarked:…

SINCE its existence as a unified state, Russia (Rus, the Tsardom of Muscovy, the Russian Empire) has continuously faced external aggression from numerous conquerors and rivals. In his report to Emperor Nicholas II in 1900, War Minister Gen. Alexey Kuropatkin noted that “over the previous 200 years, Russia has been at war for 128 years and at peace for 72 years.”¹ Ivan Ilyin, drawing on the works of historians Sergey Solovyov and Lev Sukhotin, asserted that by the early 20th century, “Russia had spent two-thirds of its existence at war.”² Consequently, Russian statecraft, particularly starting with its rulers in the 18th century, sought to create international conditions where war would become impossible or, at the very least, not as bloody. The state found full support for this from the people. As the great Russian scientist Dmitry Mendeleyev wrote: “The Russian people have never been inclined toward conquest, and if they fought and conquered many nations, it was only because circumstances directly forced them to do so.”³

The first to propose a European reconciliation initiative in modern history was Emperor Peter III Fyodorovich. By his order, on February 12,…

IN OCTOBER 2024, the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China will celebrate a significant milestone: the 75th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations. Over the years, cooperation between Moscow and Beijing has reached an unprecedented level. Interaction between our countries has become a stabilizing factor in international affairs, a driving force in forming a just multipolar world order, and a key element in ensuring global and regional security.

This achievement would have been impossible without the dedicated work of several generations of Soviet and Russian diplomats. It is no exaggeration to say that the most challenging tasks and trials fell upon the staff of the USSR People’s Commissariat for Foreign Affairs who worked in China during World War II and the Civil War in the mid-20th century. Unfortunately, the names of most of them are unknown to the general public…

AFTER the unexpected departure of Larisa Reisner, the common-law wife of Soviet plenipotentiary representative Fyodor Raskolnikov, to her homeland in the spring of 1923, the memory of this striking and prepossessing Bolshevik lingered for a long time in patriarchal Kabul. Combining seemingly incompatible traits – the harsh exoticism of the revolution and the gentle aroma of Russian poetic culture of the Silver Age – she made a tremendous impression on Kabul’s small diplomatic corps. With her charisma and charm, Larisa Mikhailovna Reisner captivated the close circle of the Afghan ruler who was eager to break free from the medieval stagnation of his country.

Foreigners visiting Kabul were puzzled as to how and why such a relaxed, highly educated, and supremely emancipated Bolshevik had ended up in this remote corner of the East. They concluded that this was clearly a form of political exile for both the plenipotentiary representative and his companion.¹ Indeed, that was essentially the case. The Soviet leadership could not forgive Raskolnikov for his missteps as commander of the Baltic Fleet that in March 1921 had led to the anti-Bolshevik uprising of the Kronstadt sailors. Thanks to his old comrade Lev Trotsky, they were sent out of sight to distant Afghanistan…

JUNE 6, 2024, marked the 225th anniversary of the birth of Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin. Preparations for this event began back in 2021, following a decree by Russian President Vladimir Putin [ 1]. The anniversary was widely celebrated both in Russia and abroad, with significant contributions from the staff of Russia’s embassies and consulates.

It is well known that the greatest Russian poet was also an employee of the foreign policy department. His diplomatic career spanned a total of 12 years, divided into two periods: the first from 1817 to 1824, and the second from 1831 to 1837. Had he not been dismissed from service in 1824, followed by his exile to Mikhailovskoye and then the “Boldino Autumn,” his “employment record” would have remained with the Collegium, and later with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, for nearly 20 years – from his graduation from the lyceum until his untimely death. However, history does not deal in hypotheticals, and employment records as we know them today did not exist back then…

IN RECENT years, both specialists in international relations and a broad spectrum of Russian readers have shown a growing interest in processes occurring in the US and changes in its role within the global system. This interest stems from a deficit of objective information about the US, associated with the intensification of the hybrid confrontation between Moscow and Washington, as well as unconventional trends in American sociopolitical life. However, it is regrettable to note that the number of fundamental monographs on this subject published in Russia since the early 2020s is extremely small. Such works are either translations, often written by inherently biased Western (most frequently American) authors, or narrowly specialized works published in limited editions that illuminate specific aspects of events in the US, while a more comprehensive picture remains elusive. Readers often have to rely on outdated publications from the era of the unipolar world, where liberal domestic and foreign authors uncritically examined the history, economy, and politics of the US based on the concept of the “New American Century” and Washington’s continued dominance.

Ivan Savelyev, Head, Department of State and International Law, Lomonosov Northern (Arctic) Federal University, Candidate of Science (History)…